Akademik Metin Yazmanın Genel Fonksiyonları
Tedbirli Olmak
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Akademik iletişimin en göze çarpan üslup yönlerinden biri de yazarların, küçük bir belirsizliğin mevcut olabileceği durumlarda mutlak kesinliği ifade etmekten ve az sayıda istisnanın olabileceği durumlarda aşırı genellemeler yapmaktan kaçınma eğilimidir. Bu, bir ifadenin veya iddianın epistemolojik gücünün (bilgi gücünün) bir şekilde hafifletildiği (zayıfladığı) birçok durum olduğu anlamına gelir. Yazarlar ayrıca kendileriyle başka bir yazar tarafından yapılan bir beyan veya iddia arasında bir miktar mesafe yaratmak isteyebilirler. Dilbilim alanında, bir ifadenin gücünü azaltmaya veya mesafe oluşturmaya yönelik araçlar, garantiye alma (hedging) araçları olarak bilinir. Araştırma raporlarının analizi, tartışma bölümlerinin, özellikle yazarların bulgular için açıklamalar sunduğu durumlarda, hedging araçları açısından zengin olma eğiliminde olduğunu göstermiştir. |
Yazarı bir pozisyon almadan uzaklaştıran araçlar
It is thought that ... It is believed that ...
It has been reported that ...
It is a widely held view that ...
It has commonly been assumed that ...
According to Smith (2002), ... According to recent reports, ... According to many in the field ... Many scholars hold the view that ... Smith (2001) is of the opinion that ... Recent research has suggested that ...
If Smith’s (2001) findings are accurate, ... There is some evidence to suggest that ...
There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that …
Açıklama yaparken tedbirli olmak
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These frequent storms |
may be could be might be
are almost certainly |
due to climate change. |
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It may be It is likely It could be
It is possible It is probable
It is almost certain |
that |
these frequent storms |
are a result of climate change. |
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A likely explanation
A possible explanation A probable explanation |
is that |
these frequent storms |
are a result of climate change. |
Sonuçları açıklarken tedbirli olmak (Bkz. Bulguların Tartışılması)
This inconsistency may be due to ...
It is possible that this result is due to … This discrepancy could be attributed to ...
A possible explanation for this might be that ... It seems possible that these results are due to ... This rather contradictory result may be due to ...
The observed increase in X could be attributed to ... There are several possible explanations for this result. There are two likely causes for the differences between ...
A possible explanation for these results may be the lack of adequate ...
Since this difference has not been found elsewhere it is probably not due to ...
Sonuçların yorumlanması sırasında tedbirli olunması için tavsiyede bulunmak (Bkz. Bulguların Tartışılması)
We cannot exclude the possibility that … These findings cannot be extrapolated to all … These findings may be somewhat limited by …
The possible interference of X cannot be ruled out ... These data must be interpreted with caution because ... Several sources of error may have influenced these results.
These results therefore need to be interpreted with caution. These results do not rule out the influence of other factors in … This account must be approached with some caution because …
It is important to bear in mind the possible bias in these responses.
Although exclusion of X did not ..., these findings should be interpreted with caution. However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be ...
The lack of a standardised measure makes it difficult to interpret these results with confidence.
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It is possible that these results |
may not apply to …
do not represent the …
do not accurately reflect … have been confounded by ... may have been skewed by … might be biased because of … could be a statistical anomaly. might have been affected by …
were influenced by the lack of … may underestimate the role of … are not a true representation of …
underestimate the true prevalence of … are an artefact of our experimental design. |
Çıkarım ya da tavsiyeler konusunda tartışırken tedbirli olmak
The findings of this study suggest that ... Taken together, these results suggest that ... The evidence from this study suggests that ...
These results would seem to suggest that the ...
These initial results are suggestive of a link between X and Y. Initial observations suggest that there may be a link between ...
The findings from these studies suggest that X can have an effect on ...
One possible implication of this is that ... Strategies to enhance X might involve ...
Other types of response could include: a) …, b) ...
There would therefore seem to be a definite need for ... A reasonable approach to tackle this issue could be to ...
The data reported here appear to support the assumption that ... Another possible area of future research would be to investigate why ...
Gelecek hakkında yazarken tedbirli olmak
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This phenomenon |
may could might
is likely to will probably
will almost certainly |
become more common in the future. |
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It is likely
It is possible
It is almost certain There is a possibility There is a small chance
There is a strong possibility |
that |
the situation will improve in the long term. |
Aşırı genellemeler yapmaktan kaçınmak için araçlar
In general, this requires ...
In general terms, this means ...
X is generally assumed to play a role in ... Authors generally place an emphasis on … X uses generally accepted principles to ...
Generally accepted methods for X include: ...
Studies which show no effect are not generally published. Research articles generally consist of the following components:
Quantitative research is generally associated with the positivist paradigm.
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Ozone is toxic to |
most almost all
some types of many types of the majority of certain types of |
living organisms. |
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Ozone levels |
often generally frequently sometimes occasionally nearly always |
exceed WHO levels in many cities. |
In general, the study found a tendency for … There is a tendency for ozone to attack cells.
Ozone tends to attack cells and break down tissues.
Smith (2003) found a tendency for X to be associated with …
Smith et al. (1985) found a tendency for survey respondents to over-report ...
The tendency for extreme scores to move toward the mean score over time is known as ...
Eleştirel Olmak
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Akademik bir yazar olarak sizden, kullandığınız kaynakları eleştirmeniz beklenir. Bu, esasen, okuduklarınızı sorgulamak ve bir bilgi sırf yayınlandı diye buna katılmamak anlamına gelir. Eleştirel olmak aynı zamanda bir şeyi neden doğru ya da haklı olarak kabul etmememiz gerektiğine dair nedenler aramak anlamına da gelir. Bu, bir yazarın argümanları veya yöntemleriyle ilgili sorunları tanımlamanızı veya belki de diğer insanların bunlara yönelik eleştirilerine atıfta bulunmanızı gerektirebilir. Yapıcı eleştiri, bir araştırma veya yazının geliştirilebileceği yollar önererek bunun ötesine geçer ... yalnızca bir şeye karşı olmak yeterli değildir. Ayrıca yapıcı düşünme alışkanlıklarını da geliştirmemiz gerekir.2 |
Giriş cümleleri
Much of the criticism that X has attracted relates to … Critics question the ability of the X theory to provide ... Many aspects of this interpretation have been questioned.
Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies. Smith’s meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism.
A frequent criticism of much of the research on X concerns a general lack of … These claims have been strongly contested in recent years by a number of writers. The X theory has been vigorously challenged in recent years by a number of writers.
More recent arguments against X have been summarised by Smith and Jones (1982).
Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example, …
Geçmiş çalışmaların yetersizliklerini öne çıkarmak
Previous studies of X have not dealt with ... Researchers have not treated X in much detail. Such expositions are unsatisfactory because they ...
Most studies in the field of X have only focused on ... Half of the studies evaluated failed to specify whether ...
The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y. Most empirical studies of X have relied upon small sample sizes.
However, these studies used non-validated methods to measure ... The vast majority of researchers have not considered the effects of …
The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. Most studies of X have only been carried out in a small number of areas. However, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature. Small sample sizes have been a serious limitation for many earlier studies. The lack of reliable instruments is particularly problematic for studies of … None of the studies reviewed appear to have controlled for the effects of … The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.
This general lack of methodological rigour may put in question the results of … However, few writers have been able to draw on any structured research into ... There are obvious difficulties in accepting the reliability of self-report information. However, these results were limited to X and are therefore not representative of ... Most of the research on the association between X and Y is flawed methodologically.
The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about ... Although extensive research has been carried out on X, no single study exists which adequately ...
2 De Bono, E. (2016) Parallel Thinking. London: Ebury Publishing (p.58).
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Most studies of X |
have only focused on ...
do not address the question of … are unsatisfactory because they ... fail to estimate economic rates of ...
have only investigated the impact of ... have not included variables relating to …
are limited by weak designs and a failure to address … have only been carried out in a small number of areas. |
Belirli bir çalışma ya da makalenin zayıf bir yönünü açıklamak
We are not told how … The study suffers from … The paper fails to specify …
No attempt has been made to … The study makes no attempt to … The article makes no reference to …
The report provides little evidence that …
A major problem with this experiment was that …
No attempt was made to quantify the association between X and Y.
The scope of this research was relatively narrow, being primarily concerned with …
Smith’s study of X is considered to be the most important, but it does suffer from the fact that ... However, these results were based upon data from over 30 years ago and it is unclear whether …
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The study |
is limited |
in that |
it ignores …
it only considers … it fails to provide … it relies solely on …
it did not measure … the sample is from … it focuses solely on …
it investigates only one …
it does not take into account … it did not assess frequency of … the data collected come from …
it may be generalisable only to … only 10 participants were included.
the definition of X did not encompass … it does not clearly distinguish between …
it is a post-hoc analysis based on data gathered from … |
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The research |
is limited by |
its reliance on … the absence of …
incomplete data for … the possible effect of …
the relatively small sample. the lack of information on ... the fact that it only surveyed …
the lack of clarity surrounding … the generalisation of the term …
the fact that it only includes … the fact that it is retrospective. the fact that it was restricted to …
the fact that there was no collection of … the fact that it is cross-sectional in design.
the fact that it relies on a questionnaire data to … the fact that the participants self-reported their …
the fact that it only focussed on the measurement of … the fact that it does not account for variables such as … |
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The paper |
fails to does not
makes no attempt to |
specify … quantify … separate … compare … account for … suggest why … analyse how …
ascertain whether … distinguish between … explain the meaning of … provide information on … address the question of … assess the effectiveness of …
use a standardised method of … give sufficient consideration to … consider the long term impact of … offer an adequate explanation for …
engage with current discourses on ... determine the underlying causes of … systematically review all the relevant literature. |
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(However,) |
the study the paper |
suffers from |
selection bias. limited sample size.
poor external validity. multiple design flaws. an overemphasis on … serious statistical flaws. insufficient sample size. inconsistent definitions.
poorly developed theory. historical and cultural bias. methodological limitations. serious sampling problems. a lack of clarity in defining … inadequate research design.
considerable design limitations.
the use of poorly matched controls. a paucity of standardised measures. notable methodological weaknesses.
fundamental flaws in research design. lack of a strong theoretical framework.
certain ambiguities at the conceptual level. an over-reliance on self-report methodology.
a restricted range of methodological approaches. shortcomings in the methods used to select cases. a lack of well-grounded theoretical considerations.
several conceptual and methodological weaknesses. |
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However, |
the analysis is largely superficial, based solely on … the sample size in this study was relatively small …
this research has a number of methodological weaknesses. the degree of X experienced by patients was not measured.
a major weakness with this study is that there was no control for X.
a major problem with this experiment was that no control for X was used.
the main methodological weakness is that X was only monitored for 12 months. one of the problems with the instrument the researchers used to measure X was ... |
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No attempt has been made to |
estimate the risk of … determine whether … investigate whether … quantify the degree of … model the dynamics of ... |
Problem ve kısıtları bir teori ya da argüman ile tanıtmak
The main weakness with this theory is that … The key problem with this explanation is that ...
However, this theory does not fully explain why … One criticism of much of the literature on X is that ...
Critics question the ability of the X theory to provide ... However, there is an inconsistency with this argument. There are limits to how far the concept of X can be taken. A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that ...
However, such explanations tend to overlook the fact that ... One question that needs to be asked, however, is whether ... One of the main difficulties with this line of reasoning is that … Smith’s argument relies too heavily on qualitative analysis of ...
Smith’s interpretation overlooks much of the historical research ... Many writers have challenged Smith’s claim on the grounds that ... The X theory has been criticised for being based on weak evidence. Smith’s analysis does not take account of X, nor does he examine ...
The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. It seems that Jones’ understanding of the X framework is questionable. Aspects of X's theory have been criticised at a number of different levels.
One of the limitations with this explanation is that it does not explain why… .
A final criticism of the theory of X is that it struggles to explain some aspects of … The X theory has been vigorously challenged in recent years by a number of writers. A second criticism of the hypothesis draws upon research evidence which suggests …
The X hypothesis has been questioned on the basis of some conflicting experimental findings. Around the 1970s the consensus was that …, but during the 1980s several researchers challenged this view.
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The theory is unable to |
predict … explain why …
fully account for … adequately explain the … explain what happens when …
make any useful prediction about … explain the differences observed when … provide a comprehensive explanation for … |
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The current model of X suffers from |
poor scalability. unnecessary complexity. lack of empirical support.
several methodological problems.
certain weaknesses that hinder its ability to … |
Problem ve kısıtları bir yöntem ya da uygulama ile tanıtmak
The limitation of this approach is that …
A major problem with the X method is that ... One major drawback of this approach is that ... A criticism of this experimental design is that …
The main limitation of this technique, however, is ... Selection bias is another potential concern because ...
Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this method is that ... Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies. All the studies reviewed so far, however, suffer from the fact that ... Critics of laboratory-based experiments contend that such studies …
The disadvantage of this method is its reliance on the availability of … Another problem with this approach is that it fails to take X into account. Difficulties arise, however, when an attempt is made to implement the policy.
There are obvious difficulties in accepting the reliability of self-report information.
In recent years, however, this approach has been challenged by the work of a number of … There are certain problems with the use of focus groups. One of these is that there is less ... Critics have also argued that not only do surveys provide an inaccurate measure of X, but the ... Nevertheless, the strategy has not escaped criticism from governments, agencies and academics.
Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example, argues that …
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However, all the previously mentioned methods suffer from (some) serious |
drawbacks. limitations. weaknesses. shortcomings. disadvantages. |
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However, |
this method of analysis has a number of limitations. this method does involve potential measurement error.
approaches of this kind carry with them various well-known limitations. questions have been raised about the reliability of self-report methods. |
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Selection bias is another (potential) |
risk. concern. problem. limitation. weakness.
threat to internal validity. limitation of systematic reviews. |
Bir yazarı ya da yazarın çalışmasını eleştirmek
Smith seems to ignore … Smith fails to grasp that …
Smith’s interpretation overlooks …
Smith overlooks a number of important sources. Smith fails to acknowledge the social aspects of … However, Smith’s accounts are clearly ideological.
Although Smith has argued that … she neglects to note that … Many aspects of Smith’s interpretation have been questioned. Smith’s meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism.
Smith’s arguments for X have been forcefully questioned in recent years. The most important of these criticisms is that Smith failed to note that ...
The most convincing rebuttal of Smith’s interpretations has been written by … Smith’s decision to prioritise X as the primary cause of Y has been widely attacked. The scope of this research was relatively narrow, being primarily concerned with …
Smith’s study of X is considered to be the most important, but it does suffer from the fact that ...
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Smith The book
The paper |
fails to does not
makes no attempt to |
specify … quantify … compare … separate … account for … suggest why … analyse how …
ascertain whether … distinguish between … explain the meaning of … provide information on … address the question of … assess the effectiveness of …
use a standardised method of … give sufficient consideration to … consider the long term impact of … offer an adequate explanation for …
engage with current discourses on ... determine the underlying causes of … systematically review all the relevant literature. |
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Smith’s paper |
is |
limited deficient problematic |
in three areas. with regard to … in two respects.
in that it ignores … in the sense that … for several reasons. |
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(However,) |
the paper does not address … Smith fails to fully define what ...
a major criticism of Smith’s work is that ... Smith fails to acknowledge the significance of ...
the author overlooks the fact that X contributes to Y. what Smith fails to do is to draw a distinction between ...
Smith’s paper would appear to be over ambitious in its claims. the main weakness of the study is the failure to address how ... another weakness is that we are given no explanation of how ... the research does not take into account pre-existing ... such as ...
the study fails to consider the differing categories of damage that ... the author offers no explanation for the distinction between X and Y. Smith makes no attempt to differentiate between different types of X. |
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Smith The book
The paper |
overlooks
fails to acknowledge
makes no attempt to consider |
the impact of … the reasons for … the evidence for …
the contexts in which … several key aspects of … the variable nature of … other explanations for … the complex nature of … the potential impact of … the social dimension of … the dynamic aspects of ... the underlying causes of … demographic factors that ...
the ethical implications of ... the important role played by …
the broader implications of how ... the unique complexities faced by ...
the contextual factors that influence … |
Yapıcı önerilerde bulunmak
The study would have been more interesting if it had included … These studies would have been more useful if they had focused on …
The study would have been more relevant if the researchers had asked …
The questionnaire would have been more useful if it had asked participants about … The research would have been more relevant if a wider range of X had been explored.
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The study The findings Smith’s paper
Her conclusions |
would have been might have been |
more
much more far more |
useful original relevant convincing interesting persuasive |
if he/she had
if the author had |
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used ... adopted… included … provided … considered … |
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A more comprehensive study would include all the groups of ...
A better study would examine a large, randomly selected sample of societies with ...
A much more systematic approach would identify how X interacts with other variables that ...
Çalışmayı pozitif olarak değerlendirmek
This article provides a valuable insight into … Overall, X’s study is a powerful explanation of …
Smith’s research is valuable for our understanding of …
The first major fieldwork project that was started in X was … In his seminal text, XXXXX, Smith devoted some attention to …
One of the most influential accounts of X comes from Smith (1986) … Smith’s synthesis remains one of the most comprehensive studies of … Smith makes an interesting contribution with regard to the impact of … In a well-designed and robust study, Smith (1998) examined data from …
A good summary of the classification of X has been provided in the work of … The pioneering work of Smith remains crucial to our wider understanding of … The most comprehensive study of X during this period has been undertaken by …
Smith, in his comprehensive two-volume biography of X, devoted a substantial section to … Smith’s study is of great significance as it marks the first attempt to assess the broader impact of … A more substantial approach to the longer-term significance of X can be found in Smith’s recent article in …
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Smith (1990) |
offers provides presents |
a useful
a detailed an original an insightful an extensive
an interesting
a contemporary a comprehensive |
analysis of … |
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useful |
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timely |
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found ... |
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seminal |
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concluded that ... |
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detailed |
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was able to show ... |
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In his In her In this |
thorough
excellent influential important innovative pioneering |
study (of X), survey (of X), analysis (of X), examination (of X),
investigation (into X), |
Smith (2012)
Jones (2014) |
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argues that … |
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impressive |
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makes the case for … |
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wide-ranging |
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provides a valuable ... |
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comprehensive |
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ground-breaking |
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Smith’s |
seminal landmark influential thoughtful innovative pioneering fascinating informative wide-ranging comprehensive ground-breaking |
study analysis |
provides a valuable insight into …
makes a valuable contribution with regard to … remains crucial to our wider understanding of …
is of great significance as it marks the first attempt to … |
